Pathology arises out fo the ex

Concepts of pathology, as treated by the traditions of clinical psychology and psychiatry, define what is ?normal? and ?abnormal? in human behaviour. Various psychological paradigms exist today, each emphasising diverse ways of defining and treating psyopathology. Most commonly utilised is the medical model which is limited in many respects, criticised for reducing patients problems to a list of pathological symptoms that have a primarily biological base and which are to be treated behaviourally or pharmacologically (Schwartz & Wiggins 1999). Such reductionistic positivist ways of viewing the individual maintain the medical discourse of ?borderline personality?, schizoid?, ?paranoid? or ?clinically depressed?, often failing to address the wider socio-

ltural environment of the individual. Pilgrim (1992) suggests that such diagnostic pidgeon-holing does not enhance humanity, nor aid those who are dealing with the distressed individual to find meaning. It also neglects to consider life beyond the physical, failing to address the more philosophical questions that abound from our very existence.

Existential psychiatry and psychology arose in Europe in the 1940's and 1950's as a direct response to the dissatisfaction with prevailing efforts to gain scientific understanding in psychiatry (Binswanger 1963). Existentialism is the title of a set of philosophical ideas that emphasise the existence of the human being, the lack of meaning and purpose in life and the solitude of human existence. Existentialism stresses the jeopardy of life, the voidness of human reality and admits that the human being thrown into the world, a world in which pain, frustration, sickness, contempt, malaise and death dominates (Barnes 1962). How one positions oneself in that world becomes the focus for existential notions of pathology, a responsibility that is present for

every human being, not one confined to the ?mentally ill?. In this sense the human being is ?response-able? to the existential predicament that is life and the necessary struggles that arise through negotiating these conditions in every lived moment.

In this essay I will give a brief outline of the history of existential thinkers, then discuss how the existential challenge emphasises one's freedom of choice of being-in-the-world and how ultimately one must take responsibility for how one reacts to the givens of existence. I will outline how these predicaments of life can precipitate anxiety, guilt, inertia and the loss of will; that facing the responsibilities to the ?givens? and choices in existence can cause ontological anxiety, a natural reaction to living authentically, and the problems incurred when one avoids tackling these predicaments and contradictions, thus living inauthentically or choosing to withdraw into a solitary world. The existential notion of pathology will be contrasted with that

of the positivist approach.

During the Second World War existentialism found it's zenith of popularity, a time when Europe was in crisis, faced with mass death and destruction. Existentialism provides a moving account of the agony of being thrown into the world, perhaps appealing the times of intense confusion, despair and rootlesssness caused by the War and it's aftermath. In the 19th century existential thought is found in the writings of Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), Friederich Neitzche (1844-1900), Fyodor Dostoyevoski (1821-1881) and later Jean-Paul Satre (1905-1980), all of whom were opposed to the predominant philosophies, and scientific dogmas, of their time and committed to exploring the experience of reality in a passionate and personal manner.

The birth of modern existentialism can be attributed to Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), who's thinking was applied to psychiatry, psychotherapy and psychoanalysis by Karl Jaspers (1883-1969), Ludwig Binswanger (1881-1966) and Medard Boss (1903- 1990). The movement attempted to gain a sense of the subjective phenomena of mental illness using existential concepts (Owen 1994). In America psychotherapists May and Yalom (1984) formulated their unique type of existential psychotherapy, as did Frankl (1963) in Austria

th logotherapy, and also Laing (1960), working with schizophrenics, in the anti-psychiatry movement in Britain.

Ironically many of the writers celebrated as existentialists deny to be grouped together as one school of thought, agreeing wholly on all concepts, thus a diverse collection of tenets are represented under the umbrella of existentialism.

Arising from a deeply philosophical root of ideas existentialism explores the experience of existence, asking what does it mean to be in this world. Concerned with ontology, rather than aetiology, existential theorists avoid models that categorise individuals, seeking to uncover that which is universal in the human dilemma (Deurzen-Smith 1996). Scientific enquiry fails to procure a complete worldview of ?human-being? by pertaining to unexamined assumptions (Jaspers 1963). Human-being is revealed in the workings of guilt, conflict, psychosis, suffering and death. Only by facing up to these contingencies can humanity be accomplished.

Bugental (1978) defines identity as a process, not a fixidity, and when one realises this one is faced with the nothingness of being. This nothingness, the non-existence of an essence of being, is the primary source of freedom that one must face in each and every moment. Kierkegaard (1944) theorises that such freedom brings about existential anxiety through the contemplation of choice and the realisation that one's destiny is not fixed but open to an infinitude of possibilities.

Existential anxiety differs fundamentally from psychological anxiety such that it may have no immediately perceivable cause, it seems irrational, pervades one's whole being, may manifest as an unexplainable dread and arise only in moments when normal insecurities disappear. Yalom (1989) describes it as that which ?whirrs continuously just beneath the membrane of life?, coming to light perhaps through personal crisis, a work of art, or a sermon. May & Yalom (1984) define this anxiety as pertaining to the threat to one's very existence or to values that are identified with existence.

Thus there is no ?cure? for such angst, it is argued, for it is an intrinsic component of the human predicament. Both the Freudian and the existential paradigm position anxiety as the central dynamic for psychopathology. Conscious and unconscious ways of dealing with this anxiety are formed, the important distinction is that whereas Freudian anxiety is ?drive? based existential anxiety arises through awareness (May and Yalom 1984).

Existential anxiety manifests differently depending upon the individual's stance toward living; work that is commonly undertaken in the process of existential psychotherapy. It can be utilised as a source of great creativity and energy (May 1969) or reveal itself as neurotic anxiety (May & Yalom 1984), paralysing the individual. The common notion of mental health being an existence free from anxiety is thus considered absurd. Mental health is attributed to those who are able to live, as much as possible without neurotic, inhibitory anxieties but with the openness and understanding to suffer the inescapable existential anxiety of living. Psychological disturbance, it is argued, comes about when one fails to acknowledge such inherent anxiety, striving to avoid such 'truth?, the consequence of which is inauthentic living (Laing 1960).

The gift of existential freedom, is not only the source of anxiety, but brings the burden of profound responsibility. If it is true that our being is actually nothing and that we are in a constant flux, then one is faced with a terrible emptiness and at the same time a miraculous freedom (Bugental 1978). May (1989) observes that freedom is how we relate to our destiny and destiny is significant only because we have freedom.

One must take this ?freedom of being? and the responsibility that goes with it, including the guilt of one's actions. Each action negates the other possible ...

You are currently seeing 50% of this paper.

You're seeing 1240 words of 2479.

Read the full essay

Adult Education in the U

.S 1). INTRODUCTION In adult education, The concept of central learning theory is self-directed learning. He (1985) said that because the concept is so central to what adult education is all about, self-directed learning has been one of the field's high-interest topics for more than a decade (Mezirow, 1988). Many people like researchers...

190 reviews

Download

In todays society

In today?s society the public branding of the Gap name can be found everywhere. Go to any big city in North America and there will be public branding of the Gap name. Almost any major company will participate in public branding of their name. Gap keeps on public branding their name more and more effectively. Sides of buses, large billboards dow...

130 reviews

Download

Business

Improving personal communications is very important to today in the fast moving world. The communication process is very important, it is estmated that 80 percent of messages get deport' For better results replace 'You statements' with 'I statements.' Say I'm concerned...That will bring the person off of the defensive approch. Also discuss thi...

162 reviews

Download

Causing generation x

Teenagers wasting 2.3 million dollars worth of gas a year driving around the same block. Kids at the mall for the sole purpose of shop-lifting. Underage consumption parties. Stealing lawn ornaments. These are just some of the effects of Generation X growing up. The main cause of this destruction of youth is the crumbling of families. No more...

144 reviews

Download

Analyzation Essay on a Newspap

The front page of a newspaper provides a great deal of information on various subjects. Most newspapers include a weather forecast, an index or brief description of articles inside the paper, and a small sports scorecard to accompany the local and national news. Newspapers also concentrate on how to grab the attention of readers. They most c...

78 reviews

Download